Research Article | 24 Jan 2026

Evolving public perceptions and control preferences toward urban pigeons in a UNESCO World Heritage city: Evidence from serial cross-sectional surveys in Sucre, Bolivia (2012–2024)

Fabiana M. Pérez Morales1,2, Katja Radon2,3, and María T. Solís-Soto2,4Show more

1. Instituto de Biodiversidad y Recursos Naturales (I-BIORENA), Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad San Francisco Xavier, 132 Calvo St. Sucre, Bolivia.

2. Center for International Health, University Hospital, LMU Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany.

3. Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, University Hospital, LMU Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany.

4. OH TARGET Competence Center, Universidad San Francisco Xavier, Sucre, Bolivia.

Corresponding author: Maria T. Solís-Soto (maritesolissoto@gmail.com)

Received: 2025-07-15, Accepted: 2025-12-21, Published: 2026-01-24

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ONE HEALTH | pg no. 17-26 | Vol. 12, Issue 1 | DOI: 10.14202/IJOH.2026.17-26
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Abstract

          
Background and Aim: Urban pigeon populations (Columba livia) are increasingly recognized as sources of environmental contamination, infrastructure damage, and zoonotic risk. However, few studies have examined how public perceptions and tolerance levels shift over time, particularly in historical cities where pigeons interact with tourist spaces and cultural heritage. This study assessed the changes in the perceptions, prejudices, and preferred control strategies of the pigeon populations in Sucre, Bolivia, across three time points (2012, 2017, and 2024). 
Materials and Methods: Three serial cross-sectional surveys were conducted in high-traffic public areas of Sucre using a structured, anonymous questionnaire (2012: N = 213; 2017: N = 209; 2024: N = 203). Sociodemographic information, pigeon-related prejudices, and preferred control methods were collected. Differences across years and demographic groups were assessed using chi-square tests. Crude and adjusted odds ratios (95% confidence interval) were calculated to identify factors associated with a preference for pigeon eradication. Open-ended responses on control recommendations were thematically coded into lethal and non-lethal categories. 
Results: A total of 625 citizens participated in this study. Over the 12-year period, the respondents consistently identified littering (66%), infrastructure damage (41%), and disease transmission (42%) as major concerns, with notable peaks in 2017. Preferences for eradication increased markedly from 20% in 2012 to 49% (2024) (p < 0.01). Older adults (≥31 years), individuals perceiving pigeons as dirt sources, and respondents in 2024 were significantly more likely to support pigeon eradication. Conversely, participants who reported that pigeons were “not unpleasant” had substantially lower odds of preferring eradication. Citizens proposed various non-lethal methods, including reproductive control, habitat modification, and capture–relocation strategies. 
Conclusion: Public perceptions of pigeons in Sucre have become progressively less tolerant, with increasing support for eradication and persistent concerns about hygiene, public health, and cultural heritage damage. These findings underscore the need for an integrated management plan grounded in the One Health framework, which prioritizes humane, sustainable, and socially acceptable measures. Incorporating public attitudes and promoting ongoing education will be essential to balance heritage preservation, animal welfare, and urban ecosystem health. 

         
Keywords: antimicrobial resistance, epidemiology, livestock health, One Health, public health, risk factors, slaughterhouse surveillance.